Increasing tolerance of wolves in Montana, United States (2012–2023)

Gray wolf (Canis lupus) conservation has been particularly controversial in the Northern Rocky Mountains, although reliable human dimensions data is sparse. Globally, public cognitions toward wolves are consistently positive with exceptions among rural residents, especially hunters and landowners; results vary about whether or how cognitions change over time and time-series data remains scarce. Here, we describe wolf-related cognitions in the large, rural state of Montana using three, statewide mail-back surveys spanning a decade (2012–2023; total n = 7607). Results, weighted for inference, showed high and increasing public tolerance for wolves. Tolerance was low among wolf hunters and landowners, but increasing among ungulate hunters. Among residents, a decreasing majority tolerated wolf hunting, whereas a decreasing minority tolerated wolf trapping. Tolerance of wolves was spatially correlated toward population centers and associated with respondents' identities, values, and wolf-related experiences. We discuss these results, future work needed to explain these trends, and implications for wolf management broadly.