The landscape of no worries? Increased recreation exposure decreases the landscape of human fear in wildlife

Recreation's expanding footprint increasingly overlaps habitats once considered refuges from human disturbance. Yet our ability to predict wildlife responses across broad spatial scales to balance recreational opportunities and wildlife refugia remains limited. We integrated data from an experimental audio playback study quantifying antipredator responses of large mammals to recreation noise with estimates of human use derived from fine-scale GPS data from smartphone applications. We tested whether variation in responses to recreation noises was mediated by exposure history to human presence and the reliability of human-associated cues. To evaluate potential behavioral mechanisms, we compared three competing hypotheses: (a) habituation or filtering, where responses decline with increased exposure or less tolerant individuals are excluded from high-use areas; (b) sensitization, where responses intensify with greater exposure; and (c) no relationship to exposure, with responses instead reflecting individual differences or seasonal drivers. Exposure intensity strongly influenced the probability of fleeing when recreation noises were played. Fleeing behavior was 22% lower in high-use areas relative to low-use areas during the previous month, with the reduction especially pronounced in species generally more sensitive to human presence. By combining behavioral experiments with human mobility data, we scaled predictions of wildlife behavior across an expansive National Forest and revealed how recreation reshapes the landscape of fear. Our results highlight a practical framework for managing human–wildlife coexistence. Strategic spatial or temporal zoning of recreation, including densification of new trail systems, may help preserve refugia for sensitive species while sustaining recreation access.